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In this study, top-down syntheses of carbon dots (CDs) from four different carbon precursors, namely, carbon nano powders, graphite, graphene, and carbon nanotubes, were carried out. Systematic study demonstrated that the optical properties and surface functionalities of the CDs were quite similar and mainly influenced by the synthesis method, while the sizes, morphologies, chemical compositions, and core structures of the CDs were heavily influenced by the carbon precursors. On the basis of these studies, the formation processes and structural models of these four top-down CDs were proposed. The cell cytotoxicity and photothermal conversion efficiency of these CDs were also carefully evaluated, demonstrating their potential applications in photothermal therapy. 

Nanoparticles have been conjugated to biological systems for numerous applications such as self-assembly, sensing, imaging, and therapy. Development of more reliable and robust biosensors that exhibit high response rate, increased detection limit, and enhanced useful lifetime is in high demand. We have developed a sensing platform by the conjugation of β-galactosidase, a crucial enzyme, with lab-synthesized gel-like carbon dots (CDs) which have high luminescence, photostability, and easy surface functionalization. We found that the conjugated enzyme exhibited higher stability towards temperature and pH changes in comparison to the native enzyme. This enriched property of the enzyme was distinctly used to develop a stable, reliable, robust biosensor. The detection limit of the biosensor was found to be 2.9 × 10−4 M, whereas its sensitivity was 0.81 µA·mmol−1·cm−2. Further, we used the Langmuir monolayer technique to understand the surface properties of the conjugated enzyme. It was found that the conjugate was highly stable at the air/subphase interface which additionally reinforces the suitability of the use of the conjugated enzyme for the biosensing applications. 

Bone tissue engineering (BTE) has received significant attention due to its enormous potential in treating critical‐sized bone defects and related diseases. Traditional materials such as metals, ceramics, and polymers have been widely applied as BTE scaffolds; however, their clinical applications have been rather limited due to various considerations. Recently, carbon‐based nanomaterials attract significant interests for their applications as BTE scaffolds due to their superior properties, including excellent mechanical strength, large surface area, tunable surface functionalities, high biocompatibility as well as abundant and inexpensive nature. In this article, recent studies and advancements on the use of carbon‐based nanomaterials with different dimensions such as graphene and its derivatives, carbon nanotubes, and carbon dots, for BTE are reviewed. Current challenges of carbon‐based nanomaterials for BTE and future trends in BTE scaffolds development are also highlighted and discussed.